The basic principle in referring to different sources is the need to provide the reader with sufficient information in a systematic form for them to be able to find the original source should they wish to.
More detailed instructions on referring to different source types is provided below.
In the case of a printed work of an individual author, the order of the source list entry shall be: Surname, first name year. Title of the work. The name of the translator if there is one, the edition number in question (if this is known) and, finally, the domicile and name of the publisher.
In the case of a work produced jointly by several authors, the authors names are separated by the & symbol. Pay close attention to whether the names stated are those of the authors or the editors. If the names listed in the citation are followed by the word (ed.) or otherwise referred to as the editor of the work on the title page, the material in question is a compilation/edited collection and is referred to differently (see the section on referring to articles in an edited collection).
Please note that the publisher and the place of publication are different things, for example, a Helsinki-based publisher may print a publication in Estonia. The name and domicile of the publisher are stated last. NOT the place of print and name of the printer.
If the book name contains two heading levels, a full stop is placed between them.
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
E-books come in a wide variety of formats. Regardless of the format, however, E-books can be distinguished from regular websites in the way they constitute a logical and longer entity. E-books are typically structured in such a way that makes it easiest to read them on an e-reader/tablet.
Online publications are also e-books even though their format may be identical to that of the printed work. Thus, for example, a thesis published in the Theseus publishing repository as a .pdf document is also classed as an e-book. In principle, the same reference information is used when citing e-books as with printed books, but a URL link and the date on which the source was accessed are also added to the reference. An e-book or online publication can, of course, also be a serial or a periodical. If that is the case, attention must be paid to the specifics of the source when referencing it.
PLEASE NOTE: If an online publication is stored at a permanent address in an archive, this permanent address should be used in the entry in the list of sources and not the temporary search header that appears in the browser’s address bar when you search for the work. Persistent addresses are e.g. those beginning with URN and DOI.
If an e-book does not have page numbers, you should mention the chapter and paragraph that the citation is taken from, either as a number or heading.
If the pages in the book are numbered:
If the pages are not numbered, refer to the e-book chapters numerically or with a title/heading.
When adding the book to the list of sources, it is a good idea to mention that the work is an e-book like this (e-book) include the date of publication with sufficient accuracy. In the case of a book-format document for which a year of publication has been issued. If the format is something else, you will use the address in your browser:
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
Works with different writers are referred to as compilations or edited collections. When this is the case, the publication usually has one or more editors. The names of the editors are often mentioned on the publication’s cover and on the title page, and the authors of the chapters or articles are provided in the table of contents and on the respective title page. The editor is not always a person, as it can also be an institution.
When citing a source in an edited collection, the reference must direct the reader to the author whose ideas are being cited and the page or pages on which the matter in question is found. Thus, the author of the article is referenced and not the editor of the collected works. In the examples below, the title of the edited collection and the names of the editors are marked in red.
In-text reference:
List of sources reference:
The reference in the list of sources should include the author's name, year, article title, the names of the editors and the title of the publication, the publisher’s details, and the page numbers of the article in question. Note that the editors of the work are listed according to first name, surname order.
In addition, the page numbers for the article in the edited collection should be added at the end of the reference. NOTE: Remember to include all the pages that the article takes up and not just those that you have cited directly. Page numbers are separated by an em dash, with no spaces between the dash and the page numbers.
In the reference:
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
Periodical publications (e.g. publication series of various research institutes) and journals are one of the genres of edited works. In cases like this, the periodical or journal takes on the role of the editor.
Sometimes, however, a publication in a series may also consist of only one author's text. These typically include dissertations that appear in a university’s publication series.
Kullaslahti, Jaana 2011. Competency and development of online teachers at universities of applied sciences. Acta Electronica Universitatis Tamperensis 1074. Retrieved 5/05/2019 http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-951-44-8452-0.
In the text reference:
Kullaslahti 2011
Sources taken from periodical publications and journals are entered in the source list by first placing the author’s name, year of publication, article title, publication name, volume number, and pages on which the article is found in the publication. The publisher's name and location are not mentioned because they can change, but the name remains. The title of the serial publication often stems from the name of the publisher itself (e.g. the name of the research institute), and does not always need to be mentioned. For the sake of clarity, it is sometimes also worth mentioning the article’s genre, e.g. editorial, position paper, interview, column, etc.
In the text reference:
If the author of an article is not mentioned in the journal, refer to the journal name.
When referring to online journal articles, the date of issue is written at the end of the reference instead of the journal’s issue number. Therefore, the year number is mentioned twice in the entry in the list of sources. If a journal is primarily published online, then its own page numbering is used if available.
In the example below, Online Communication is written twice; once as the author and then again as the name of the publication and issue number. In this context, the repetition is necessary as, in addition to the author's name, nothing is added at the beginning of the list of sources than the year. Any other clarifying details are written as described below. Similarly, the reference to the Helsingin Sanomat newspaper only includes the year of publication at the start and then the date later on.
Online Communication 2010. The many faces of social media. Online Communication 1/2010, 12–19.
Helsingin Sanomat 2019. The consequences of the decline in the birth rate also extend to Helsinki. Editorial. Helsingin Sanomat 02/09/2019. Retrieved 05/09/2019. https://www.hs.fi/paakirjoitukset/art-2000006224435.html
In the text reference:
Online Communication 2010, possible page number
Helsingin Sanomat 2019, possible page number
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
Official documents are referenced by the name of the institution that produced them. Official documents include, for example, minutes of meetings, budgets, operational reports and plans, newsletters, etc.
Reference in text:
The reference in the list of sources should indicate the exact name of the documents and any identification numbers as indicated by the document publisher.
For example, the minutes of meetings held by associations are released under the name of the association in question, even if they have the names of persons as signatories. For this reason, they are referred to with the name of the association and not those of the signatories.
Public administrative documents are public and published on one of any number of forums. In contrast, documents complied by associations or private companies, may not be. Even if a document and its contents is known to the association in question and is theoretically also in the public domain, it has not been published in the true sense of the word. For this reason, references to such documents include the words: Not published. If, however, they have been released on any open forum online, they are considered to have been published. In this case, the “not published” notation is not added to the reference. Instead, the reference should include the date on which the document was accessible online and the full URL of the website on which it was published.
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
Sources that typically do not have a named author include laws and decrees. Even if laws are made through a specific process, and the body that authored them is identifiable, and even if they are signed by the President of Finland, none of these parties are designated as authors. Nor is any mention made of the communications channel through which they have been accessed. In other words, a Finlex or Edilex URL or a legislative edition is not stated in the list of references. The underlying principle here is that laws and decrees appear in the same form wherever they are accessible and, as such, do not require a reference indicating their location.
Laws and decrees are referred to with the name of the act in question and the decree number and year, which are easily found in the Finlex database. For older laws, the year is written in date format, before the act number. For example, the reference information for the Universities of Applied Sciences Act is 14.11.2014/932. When you refer to an act such as this in an in-text citation and the list of sources, you reverse the act number and year and remove the date information.
Laws are entered in the source list with the same first words as the in-text entry.
If a specific part of an act is cited in the text, it is included in the reference
Other sources that don’t typically have a named author include brochures, flyers, stickers, and other similar materials. You should, however, always try to find out who the author is. For example, the author of a brochure is often stated in a less than obvious place, such as on the back of the brochure or on the edge in very small text. Posters, even though they are publicly viewable, are not officially published in the form of a publication, so the words "not published" are included at the end of the reference.
United Against Plutocracy 2019. Poster. Not published.
As a reference in the text:
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
Not all works that can be used as source material are officially published in one forum or another. Even traditional forms of written material such as books or journals are not necessarily published. The fact that a text or an image is publicly displayed does not necessarily imply that the work is published in the sense meant in this context.
Check whether the book or journal has an ISSN or ISBN number. If they have either number, they have been published. In general, the serial number can be found on the title page, in the case of a book, or in the publication information box, in the case of a journal. The ISSN number means that it is a series publication (several issues are published with the same name) and the ISBN number means that it is a single work.
Sometimes a work can be both; i.e. part of a series AND a single publication. Doctoral dissertations published as part of publication series by a university are a good example of this kind of source. In this case, either of the aforementioned ways of referring to this kind of source is fine.
In terms of electronic sources, everything that is publicly available on the internet is deemed to have been published. For example, a Twitter message is public, but any material that can only be accessed via a password-protected sign-in, such as a closed forum is not.
Whether the source is published or not, does not necessarily determine its value as such. Both published and unpublished material can be valuable sources. However, since the purpose of the list of sources is to guide the reader as accurately as possible to the source, it is appropriate to mention if a source is not publicly available. In this case, the reader knows not to set about looking for the source in any public archives, libraries or any publicly accessible webpages. For this reason, references to such documents include the words: ''Not published''.
Public administrative documents are public and published on one of any number of forums. In contrast, documents complied by associations or private companies, may not be. Even if a document and its contents is known to the association in question and is theoretically also in the public domain, it has not been published in the true sense of the word.
Also, many companies and other organisations produce material internally, such as guides for new staff, and these are generally unpublished.
Other typical source materials are the various reports produced by projects and working groups on their activities. Sometimes reports are published, but the majority are not.
Websites that require you to login or be a registered member to access, such as an organisation’s intranet or a closed discussion forum, are not considered as published material. In the below (fictional) example, Virtual Machine is a closed (i.e. requires membership) discussion forum for young people that features a chat environment called "Boxi". Discussions carried out in the forum on 14/08/2019 are used as a source.
We must be very careful when using unpublished information to ensure our use does not violate the protection of the unpublished source without the express knowledge and permission of those parties whose information is being used. For example, if you use a non-public discussion forum material as a source, members of the forum should be informed of this use.
Always check with authors or rights holders of unpublished documents as to whether the information contained therein is confidential and then act accordingly.
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
Websites are often important sources, but they can make referencing difficult due to the fragmented and multi-layered nature of the information they contain and their style, which makes it harder to see connections between the content.
When dealing with websites, we are primarily concerned with identifying the body that has produced the textual content (or e.g. images or videos) they contain. If the author of the text is immediately obvious, we use this person’s name in the reference. If the author’s name is not immediately apparent (e.g. if it is stated somewhere not explicitly connected to the text, such as in a lower banner), it should not be used. If it is impossible to associate a person with a citation we wish to make, the author shall be identified as the body owning the website. Sometimes, however, the name of the site owner cannot be found. This might be the case if, for example, the website in question has been produced by multiple agencies and exists as a separate entity. Here, the name of the website is used; e.g. (Verneri.net 2019).
The example references below are in the form (Statistics Centre 2018), (Statistics centre 2019a), and (Statistics centre 2019b).
Each separate website is a distinct source. So when, for example, you leave the main page by clicking on a link to another page, you are moving from one source to another. It is important that the sources are separated because, for example, a source that only refers to Humak’s home page will not help the reader find information cited from a subpage.
Rule of thumb: when the URL address changes in the address bar, even if the change is very minor, the reference must also be changed.
When referring to a website, you only include the full address (beginning http:) in the list of sources, and not in the in-text citation.
It is important that the reference in the list of sources can direct the reader straight to the source. Therefore, the http address of the webpage must be stated in its entirety, no matter how long it is. Remember to state the date on which site was retrieved before the website address. This is important because online material can be lost or moved, so that the address provided may no longer be accurate. The referenced entry, including the date, is the author's guarantee that at least on the date stated the source was still visible online.
In the bibliography, the source heading is the title that corresponds exactly to the cited content. Sometimes, this may be quite general in form, for example, "General" or "Information about the association", etc. The main point is that it is the title that appears in the browser window and is not the name of the site etc.
Sometimes it may be appropriate to add information about the type of information the source contains and also the date on which it was available. Examples of this kind of material are newsletters, news feeds, blog posts, etc.
The references for the sources mentioned in the previous examples:
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
Personal communication
Sources in the category of personal communication are pieces of information obtained directly from a person. Telephone conversations are also included in this category. Personal communication sources are distinguished from an interview by the fact that they are typically brief and do not include the same structure as an interview, in which the interviewer asks questions on the basis of a pre-prepared list of questions. In other words, in addition to interviews, personal communication sources are not lectures, panel discussions or other situations in which a speaker talks to a large audience.
It is very important that a person whose speech is going to be cited as a source of information knows what their information will be used for and gives their consent for this use. Sometimes the way in which information will eventually be used is not known in advance and, therefore, cannot be stated beforehand. In this case, it is important to remember that consent can always be sought retrospectively from the source if the information.
When referencing a spoken source, you must provide the name of the speaker and the time, place, and subject of the speech.
Tirkkonen, Pekka 2009. Personal communication 03/09/2019.
Text reference indicates the last name of the speaker and the year.
Tirkkonen 2009
Panel discussions, speeches, presentations
You can also gain valuable new information from expert statements that are given in panel discussions, speeches, and presentations. Such sources are referenced by using the speaker’s name, followed by the year and the title of the speech or presentation. You should also mention the name of the event during which the speech was given, as well as the time and place.
Heusala, Tiina 2019. Brain work & cognitive ergonomy. Digi & wellness at work -seminar. October 24 2019, Rovaniemi.
If the speech used as a source is an audio recording, it should be referenced in the same way as a speech heard directly in person. In other words, you should first mention the speaker’s name, and then reference both the title of the speech and the origin of the audio recording. If the recording is long and contains several different speeches, you can also specify the exact point in which the relevant speech takes place in the recording.
Nylander, Mikaela 2017. A speech given during the question hour of the Parliament of Finland 21/9/2017. Yle News in Finnish Sign Language: the interpreting services for disabled persons raised a debate during the Parliament’s question hour, 3:44–4:50. Yle Areena 22/9/2017. Retrieved 16/11/2019. https://areena.yle.fi/1-4241427.
In a text reference:
Heusala 2019
Nylander 2017
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
Interviews are referenced using the same principle as other sources. Interviews are listed after the bibliography/list of sources and under the heading "INTERVIEWS".
It is a good idea to mention the name of the interviewer with the reference to an interview, especially if the interviews have been done by several people. If there is only one interviewer, you only need to mention their name once (e.g. all interviews were conducted by Tauno Tolonen).
In addition to the name of the interviewee and the interview year, it is customary to include the interviewee’s title; for example, if the person has been interviewed in relation to their work and not as a private person. The date and place of the interview are entered in the list of sources. If the interview has been conducted by phone or video, this needs to be mentioned instead of the place.
INTERVIEWS
For in-text references, interviews are recorded in the same way as other sources: (Koivumäki 2015).
In the case of a translated work, the name of the translator must be mentioned. The name of the translator is particularly important with the major monographs and literary works.
Francesco, Alberoni 2001. Falling in Love. Finnish. Ulla Ranta and Liisa Ryömä. Helsinki: Otava.
If you refer to an introduction or foreword written by a translator (or another author) in a monograph, it is treated as a separate text, in the same way as an article in an edited collection. In this context, the reference refers to the author.
Nieminen, Liisa 2010. Foreword. In Jim Smith The meaning of life. Finnish. Liisa Nieminen. Helsinki: Otava.
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
A citation holds more weight if the same matter is addressed by several sources. In a multi-source citation, the names of the authors are written sequentially inside the same brackets. The sources are separated by semicolons.
Multiple sources may only be combined in the same reference when all of the sources agree on the subject matter being cited in every regard.
If not all of the authors cited agree or it is otherwise necessary to associate a source with a specific point, the reference must be inserted as close as possible to the point in question, even in the middle of the sentence, if necessary.
If the author is the same, but the publication changes, the name of the author only needs to be mentioned in the beginning. The years of publications and page numbers are separated by semicolons and commas.a
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
When referring to theses, the source list reference includes the institution at which the work has been completed and the topic the work addresses, in addition to the author, year, and title of the thesis. If a thesis is available in an open electronic database (as most are today), the URN address and reference date is also included in the reference.
When referring to a thesis, the level of the qualification should also be mentioned. In the case of thesis work at universities of applied sciences, the difference between the bachelor's thesis and the master’s thesis is that (master’s) is added after the title of the thesis in question.
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
When referring to videos, podcasts, and other digital media, the same principle is used as in other sources. The key is to indicate the author or entity responsible for the content. This is always the first thing mentioned in a reference. It is sometimes difficult to understand who is the author of what material — some works can be rich in terms of their content and artistic output; e.g. a video or short film.
The most important thing is to clearly define what aspect(s) of a material are being referred to. If you cite, for example, to the words of an expert appearing in a video, then the reference refers directly to this person. In this context, the video, its director and camera person function solely as the format whereby the information is presented. In addition to the author and the title of their presentation/work, the producer and publisher of the material is also included in the source reference. This might be, for example, the organisation or company that has arranged and recorded the event in question.
When referring to a presentation as a piece of work, the information pertaining to the author is usually found in the end credits if nowhere else. There may be many authors/content creators, but there is generally only one person or entity listed as the holder of the copyright. It makes sense to use this information in the reference to the author. Sometimes, the copyright holder or the producing body is not stated. In this case, the name(s) of the persons central to the production of the material can be used; e.g. the script writer, director or cinematographer etc.
In-text references of the previous examples:
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
Emails can be used as a source. When citing emails as sources, we must remember that they are private documents that cannot be used without the consent of the parties involved. Therefore, if you intend on using an email conversation as source material, you should inform the recipient that the content of the message might be used for this purpose as part of a research project and/or a publication. If this has not been done in advance, you may ask for a retrospective consent.
The source reference for an email uses the subject header of the email as the title. This, too, is worth thinking about in advance, so that it is informative and clear. In addition to date, the source reference also indicates the address of the message recipient. This indicates the way the message has been sent and is also a guarantee of its authenticity.
The source reference only includes the surname and year:
Twitter messages are meant to be public, so you can use them without asking for permission. In contrast, information provided in forums with a restricted readership (e.g. membership-based) cannot be ethically used as a source without the permission of the relevant persons. The same also applies to WhatsApp messages, SMS text messages, and pretty much any kind of message sent confidentially and privately. In other words, you must remember to ask your chat and messaging partners for their permission to use these messages.
Technically, such messages follow the same principle as other sources. Because messages sent via social media are instant and the flow of information is vast, it is a good idea to include not only the date a message was retrieved, but also the time of day in the reference. This makes it easier for the reader to trace the information to its original source. Social media and other instant messages do not usually have a title or heading. The type of message in question is stated instead. If the Facebook page being cited is public, the date and a link to the post are included in the reference.
Here, the source reference indicates the last name of the source and the year:
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.
When referring to artificial intelligence, it is important to mention the name of the AI program, its version, and the date of use. A link should also be provided. Each AI search is unique, but since individual links are not generated, which the reader could later utilize, there is no need to add specific details like a, b, c, etc. Instead, reference the same source as long as the version remains unchanged.
Example:
In the citation:
When AI cites sources, it must ensure their actual existence. It is also essential to seek the contents referred to by the AI from these original sources and cite them directly. If, for a justified reason, this cannot be done, proceed as when citing a secondary source.
Carefully review the guidelines in the thesis guide on how to highlight the utilization of AI in text generation.
It is usually easy to find the year in which a written source has been published after a little searching. If the year cannot be found, we insert “n.d.” (no date) instead. This replaces the year in both the in-text reference and the source list.
NOTE: If the date on which an electronic source (most typically a website) has been written is not clear, the year in which the citation is being made is used instead. Websites typically show the date they were last updated at the bottom of the page. However, these do not necessarily refer to the written content on the site, but to the graphic look of the website. You should be cautious when using such information about the dates, and only include it in a reference if the link between the date and the content being cited is indisputable.
As a source of reference, this would be:
Some references may include the abbreviation "s.a." instead of the n.d. abbreviation. It is an acronym for the Latin expression sine anno, meaning ‘without years’. This is not used at Humak.
NB: The names of publications and other sources in this guide are for the most part translations of their Finnish counterparts (translated for this purpose only). Therefore it is not possible to find the publications by their names or other indications given here.